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History of Photography

Although humans have been using sculptures and paintings for thousands of years to uncover santiran of what he saw, but the idea to look at this new mechanical began in the 18th century, when scientists became interested by a device fashioned half-scientifically known as obskura camera. It is a small room, dark except for the light coming through the lens in a small hole in satudinding. The people in the room to see the sights of nature sunlit outside, which is projected on the wall opposite. But this santiran moment; when the light outside fades, santiran disappeared.

camera Obscura

Efforts to capture and retain santiran-santiran is what produces photography. The first experiments were made with metal plates coated with various solutions of silver.These chemicals slowly break down when exposed to light. If the plate thus prepared was placed in a dark box (small form obskura camera) and mounted in front of a landscape or in front of an object, slowly dim shape of the object would appear on the plate. From the beginning are still raw is the arrival of a series of improvements in the photoreceptors, the chemicals and the camera; some of the important things is illustrated by the ancient historic photography shown on the following pages.

FIRST PHOTO

The world's first photograph made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niepce from a window at his farm house in France. For the "movie" Niepce using a mixture of tin plate dipekakan and he got an idea to escape from the roof tops that described above.These photos are usually fixed so obvious but this version as what it actually is.

Below is the result of the shooting has been repaired. Image of a Set Table is made Niepce in 1827

LONG TERM EXPOSURE

Silver plated copper plate with silver jodida record santiran a street in Paris. In artificial daguerreotipe LJM Daguerre in 1839, there are the first person ever photographed - someone who was told that his shoes cleaned (front right). The road was busy but this person just long enough in place, so look for lighting by five minutes.

Important Experiments on Copper

The first successful attempt at capturing santiran vision was performed in France in 1830 by Nicéphore Niepce, an inventor, and Louis JM Daguerre, a stage designer.Actually Niepcelah people who feel honored to make the first photograph in the world.But Daguerre was the person who started photography by imposing mercury vapor on a copper plate sensitive to bring up santiran much sharper than ever can be made in advance people. Although no copies can be made from a picture of it, daguerreotipe is highly profitable and made wealthy inventor.

Daguerre IN DAGUERREOTIPE

First Film of Paper

At the same time an Englishman, Fox Talbot, was making "movies" findings in the form of silver chloride coated paper. The result is a negative paper that can reproduce much mold with pressed on sensitized paper and let it penetrated by sunlight.

In a photograph made in 1845 is Fox Talbot in advance laboratory studio showcase the efficacy of this discovery can process paper (from left) Talbot middle photograph (reproduction) painting, photographing people sitting amid Talbot, Talbot is printing using the "movie paper" was on shelf in the sunlight and Talbot when memmotret sculpture.

Better Results with Glass Wet

Daguerreotipe and paper negatives Talbot forgotten by the year 1860 after the introduction of the film from the glass plate is chemically treated. Glass is an excellent base for sensitive chemical emulsion because completely transparent and does not impede the passage of light, allowing the bright and sharp prints. Problems attach emulsion onto the glass broken by an Englishman, Scott Archer, 1851. He used a sticky liquid called kolodium. Wet plates had to be prepared, exposed and washed in place, before the emulsion dries sensitivity. This process is a hassle, but it is good enough so that the photographer is eager to carry heavy equipment around the world.Two pioneers such is William H. Jackson, who photographed the American West Region, and an Englishman, Roger Fenton, the ancient war photographer.

JACKSON IN ACTION

At the top of Glacier Point, in what is now Yosemite National Park, California, Jackson set the wet plate camera for photographing landscapes. Between 1866 and 1879 he was wandering in the Western District of America, and create thousands of photos. His photographs are very popular and influential landscape shots to persuade the US Congress to create national parks across America

WORKSHOP EASY TO BRING

In the Western District American, William H. Jackson working with wet plates in a dark room, a tent near the railroad tracks in Utah. He photographed train crew in exchange for a free ride.

TOOLS FOR WET PLATE

The tools is needed to create an image on a wet plate. Glass plates clamped (left) to be cleaned and digilapkan. Kolodium sticky poured on the glass, which is then dipped in a bath plate (tengoh), the plate gets a layer of silver nitrate solution. The plate is placed in a container (depon) that can be inserted in the camera (belohang, right) without touching the surface Iengketnya on sesuatu.Sesudah lighting, a pistol butt (right) used to soak the plate in the washing liquid. The weight of all this equipment can mcncapai 50 kilograms.

Photographer WAR CREAM

Roger Fenton was a British lawyer who with his assistants carry a photo-lab-this traveling to the Crimea in 1855. In the carriage, Fenton store five cameras, 700 glass plates, and boxes of chemicals, as well as sleeping tents, and food. He explored the campsite and battlefields. He often stopped by British troops who insisted that they were photographed.

Dry Plates miracle

Experiments were struggling fiercely with the wet plate portraits ended in 1876 with the arrival of the dry plate - square glass as before, but this time the sensitivity emulsion layer gelatin detained by fast drying. Formula gelatin dikernbangkan first in 1871 by an English physician, Richard L. Maddox. Unless plates can be prepared beforehand, gelatin itself increase the sensitivity to 60 times faster than the first wet plate. Now, for the first time, the action can be "terminated" with a fast exposure time.The new plate was immediately rnenimbulkan dalarn change camera model. Until that time, photographs are made by removing the lens cap on the camera, because the lighting is measured ticking or bermenit; and "movie" is very slow so as not to catch sight of the photographer the finger. Now, with the faster plate, cover mechanically complex required to enter a glimpse of light through the lens. Photos of dramatic new action soon follow. Eadweard Muybridge made a vital study of locomotion, reducing the exposure to a fraction of a second. The pictures he made the first time lets people see how they actually move.

ACTION PHOTOS berangkai

Muybridge made a study of motion in several ways. In the two series above it synchronizing front and rear view of the girl walking. In three series under he uses three cameras to various views of a girl who threw a handkerchief. This motion study invaluable means for artists and doctors who teach disabled people walk. Muybridge first worked with wet plate. Only after wearing dry plates faster, he developed the technique of stop-motion that made him famous - and notorious, because a lot of the circuit in the form of the nude

A row LENS

A camera lens 12 was designed by Muybridge to make successive images as complicated as on the opposite page. Pickers snapped in succession, each disputing a split second. What appear to be the lens 13 (left) is actually a lens that controls pemumpun pumpun all other lenses.

 

 

METHOD THREE-CAMERA Muybridge

To shoot the girl who threw the handkerchief on the image side, three lens camera aiming Muybridge 12 -one from the side, one of the front corner and one from the back corner. Pickers are synchronized so that the lens-lens work in unison. These three images above each is an image taken by a fourth lens on each camera. Saw the round view of the movement of the girl.

Photography for Everyone

The invention of roll film and the camera box object carried in the hand that is easy to use open fields for amateur photography. A man named George Eastman is a core force in the renewal of this flagrant. As an entrepreneur dry plates in Rochester, New York, Eastman began to question why breakable glass plates and the weight can not be replaced with something better. Is not just a glass pedestal emulsion? Why not use a flexible material, something that can be rolled up on a piston and a camera placed in such a way that one can order each time was exposed? In 1889, Henry M. Reichenbach, an Eastman employee had perfected such emulsions pedestal, made of a mixture of nitrocellulose and wood alcohol. The discovery turned out to be so successful that it is used all over the world until the 1930s - when a material which is not so flammable, cellulose acetate, replace it. Meanwhile, Eastman enhance the film reels and cameras that contain it - Kodak. Everything is contained in this first Kodak unique, including its name, composed by Eastman. Kodak is a superior simplicity shortening the photographic process into two easy steps: see objects through reconnaissance and massaging pickers. The camera is small and light; berpumpun lens can capture everything clearly within three meters. Film installed at the factory and after 100 times the camera scene were sent to the Eastman Company, where the film was washed, printed and returned with a camera that has been filled again. Kodak was appalling - millions and millions sold worldwide: Eastman motto "You push the button, then submit it to us," became an international byword, so even appeared in Gilbert and Sullivan operetta, Utopia, Unlimited, in 1893.

          

KODAK FIRST

Kodak original inner mechanism released above this ideal for roll film newly discovered. This film can be used for 100 photos; The new order can be placed into position by hand after each round lighting. Cover photo round eliminates edge tends to become blurred. On the right side, George Eastman, on the boat, pointing the new discovery while a friend took a picture with other Kodak.

Kodak perpetuate nearly every view, as seen in the photographs from the 1890's.Travelers equip itself with Kodak and snapped whatever the natives while photographing tourists. Everywhere people capture on film what they see his eyes.

The start of Color Photography

It is surprising that some of the works have been created colored since a century ago.At that time James Clerk Maxwell of Scotland demonstrated that color photos can be created by breaking an object into the three primary colors - red, green and blue - with filters. What a pity that the system requires three separate photos, each of which reveals a color. New in 1904 one finds a color system that is reliable, and only using one camera. This is achieved in France by the Lumiere brothers to the process that they call autokrom. The secret is in the "movies" they are in the form of a glass plate coated with microscopic starch grains, each of which is colored red, green or blue. The idea of ​​inserting particles divergent color into the film itself is still being followed until today.

The first color photograph was simply a ceramic tile

COLOUR AT THE BEGINNING OF THE BEGINNING

Photo above ceramic tiles made by cousin Nicéphore Niepce in 1867. "Movies" it is a silver plate which can be colored dipekakan particular under the influence of sunlight.

AUTHOR: Teddy K Wirakusumah

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Sociological media theories

Three main sociological perspectives on the role of media exist: the limited‐effects theory, the class‐dominant theory, and the culturalist theory.

Limited-effects theory

The limited‐effects theory argues that because people generally choose what to watch or read based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence. This theory originated and was tested in the 1940s and 1950s. Studies that examined the ability of media to influence voting found that well‐informed people relied more on personal experience, prior knowledge, and their own reasoning. However, media “experts” more likely swayed those who were less informed. Critics point to two problems with this perspective. 

First, they claim that limited‐effects theory ignores the media's role in framing and limiting the discussion and debate of issues. How media frames the debate and what questions members of the media ask change the outcome of the discussion and the possible conclusions people may draw. Second, this theory came into existence when the availability and dominance of media was far less widespread. 

Class-dominant theory

The class‐dominant theory argues that the media reflects and projects the view of a minority elite, which controls it. Those people who own and control the corporations that produce media comprise this elite. Advocates of this view concern themselves particularly with massive corporate mergers of media organizations, which limit competition and put big business at the reins of media—especially news media. Their concern is that when ownership is restricted, a few people then have the ability to manipulate what people can see or hear. For example, owners can easily avoid or silence stories that expose unethical corporate behavior or hold corporations responsible for their actions.

The issue of sponsorship adds to this problem. Advertising dollars fund most media. Networks aim programming at the largest possible audience because the broader the appeal, the greater the potential purchasing audience and the easier selling air time to advertisers becomes. Thus, news organizations may shy away from negative stories about corporations (especially parent corporations) that finance large advertising campaigns in their newspaper or on their stations. Television networks receiving millions of dollars in advertising from companies like Nike and other textile manufacturers were slow to run stories on their news shows about possible human‐rights violations by these companies in foreign countries. Media watchers identify the same problem at the local level where city newspapers will not give new cars poor reviews or run stories on selling a home without an agent because the majority of their funding comes from auto and real estate advertising. This influence also extends to programming. In the 1990s a network cancelled a short‐run drama with clear religious sentiments, Christy,because, although highly popular and beloved in rural America, the program did not rate well among young city dwellers that advertisers were targeting in ads.

Critics of this theory counter these arguments by saying that local control of news media largely lies beyond the reach of large corporate offices elsewhere, and that the quality of news depends upon good journalists. They contend that those less powerful and not in control of media have often received full media coverage and subsequent support. As examples they name numerous environmental causes, the anti‐nuclear movement, the anti‐Vietnam movement, and the pro‐Gulf War movement.

While most people argue that a corporate elite controls media, a variation on this approach argues that a politically “liberal” elite controls media. They point to the fact that journalists, being more highly educated than the general population, hold more liberal political views, consider themselves “left of center,” and are more likely to register as Democrats. They further point to examples from the media itself and the statistical reality that the media more often labels conservative commentators or politicians as “conservative” than liberals as “liberal.”

Media language can be revealing, too. Media uses the terms “arch” or “ultra” conservative, but rarely or never the terms “arch” or “ultra” liberal. Those who argue that a political elite controls media also point out that the movements that have gained media attention—the environment, anti‐nuclear, and anti‐Vietnam—generally support liberal political issues. Predominantly conservative political issues have yet to gain prominent media attention, or have been opposed by the media. Advocates of this view point to the Strategic Arms Initiative of the 1980s Reagan administration. Media quickly characterized the defense program as “Star Wars,” linking it to an expensive fantasy. The public failed to support it, and the program did not get funding or congressional support.

Culturalist theory

The culturalist theory, developed in the 1980s and 1990s, combines the other two theories and claims that people interact with media to create their own meanings out of the images and messages they receive. This theory sees audiences as playing an active rather than passive role in relation to mass media. One strand of research focuses on the audiences and how they interact with media; the other strand of research focuses on those who produce the media, particularly the news.

Theorists emphasize that audiences choose what to watch among a wide range of options, choose how much to watch, and may choose the mute button or the VCR remote over the programming selected by the network or cable station. Studies of mass media done by sociologists parallel text‐reading and interpretation research completed by linguists (people who study language). Both groups of researchers find that when people approach material, whether written text or media images and messages, they interpret that material based on their own knowledge and experience. 

Thus, when researchers ask different groups to explain the meaning of a particular song or video, the groups produce widely divergent interpretations based on age, gender, race, ethnicity, and religious background. Therefore, culturalist theorists claim that, while a few elite in large corporations may exert significant control over what information media produces and distributes, personal perspective plays a more powerful role in how the audience members interpret those messages.

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History of Cable

In the past 65 years, cable has emerged from a fledgling novelty for a handful of households to the nation’s preeminent provider of digital television, movies and state-of-the-art broadband Internet service available to millions of Americans.

Today, thanks to broadband cable and other breakthroughs, the technological landscape is unrecognizable compared with even a few years ago. Consumers now enjoy video content and Internet access from multiple services on multiple devices. They can go online anytime, anywhere with more options and opportunities than ever.

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Click on the graph above for a more in depth view.

The 1940s and 1950s

Cable television originated in the United States almost simultaneously in Arkansas, Oregon and Pennsylvania in 1948 to enhance poor reception of over-the-air television signals in mountainous or geographically remote areas. “Community antennas” were erected on mountain tops or other high points, and homes were connected to the antenna towers to receive the broadcast signals.

By 1952, 70 “cable” systems served 14,000 subscribers nationwide.

In the late 1950s, cable operators began to take advantage of their ability to pick up broadcast signals from hundreds of miles away. Access to these “distant signals” began to change the focus of cable’s role from one of transmitting local broadcast signals to one of providing new programming choices.

The 1960s

By 1962, almost 800 cable systems serving 850,000 subscribers were in business. Well-known corporate names like Westinghouse, TelePrompTer and Cox began investing in the business, complementing the efforts of early entrepreneurs like Bill Daniels, Martin Malarkey and Jack Kent Cooke.

The growth of cable through the importation of distant signals was viewed as competition by local television stations. Responding to broadcast industry concerns, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) expanded its jurisdiction and placed restrictions on the ability of cable systems to import distant television signals. As a result of these restrictions, there was a “freeze” effect on the development of cable systems in major markets, lasting into the early ‘70s (see below).

The 1970s

In the early 1970s, the FCC continued its restrictive policies by enacting regulations that limited the ability of cable operators to offer movies, sporting events, and syndicated programming.

The freeze on cable’s development lasted until 1972, when a policy of gradual cable deregulation led to, among other things, modified restrictions on the importation of distant signals. The clamp on growth had adverse financial effects, especially on access to capital. Money for cable growth and expansion all but dried up for several years.

However, concerted industry efforts at the federal, state, and local levels resulted in the continued lessening

of restrictions on cable throughout the decade. These changes, coupled with cable’s pioneering of satellite communications technology, led to a pronounced growth of services to consumers and a substantial increase in cable subscribers.

In 1972, Charles Dolan and Gerald Levin of Sterling Manhattan Cable launched the nation’s first pay-TV network, Home Box Office (HBO). This venture led to the creation of a national satellite distribution system that used a newly approved domestic satellite transmission. Satellites changed the business dramatically, paving the way for the explosive growth of program networks.

The second service to use the satellite was a local television station in Atlanta that broadcast primarily sports and classic movies. The station, owned by R.E. “Ted” Turner, was distributed by satellite to cable systems nationwide, and soon became known as the first “superstation,” WTBS.

By the end of the decade, growth had resumed, and nearly 16 million households were cable subscribers.

The 1980s

The 1984 Cable Act established a more favorable regulatory framework for the industry, stimulating investment in cable plant and programming on an unprecedented level.

Deregulation provided by the 1984 Act had a strong positive effect on the rapid growth of cable services. From 1984 through 1992, the industry spent more than $15 billion on the wiring of America, and billions more on program development. This was the largest private construction project since World War II.

Satellite delivery, combined with the federal government’s relaxation of cable’s restrictive regulatory structure, allowed the cable industry to become a major force in providing high quality video entertainment and information to consumers. By the end of the decade, nearly 53 million households subscribed to cable, and cable program networks had increased from 28 in 1980 to 79 by 1989. Some of this growth, however, was accompanied by rising prices for consumers, incurring growing concern among policy makers.

The 1990s

In 1992, Congress responded to cable price increases and other market factors with legislation that once again hampered cable growth and opened heretofore “exclusive” cable programming to other competitive distribution technologies such as “wireless cable” and the emerging direct satellite broadcast (DBS) business.

In spite of the effect of the 92 Act, the number of satellite networks continued their explosive growth, based largely on the alternative idea of targeting programming to a specific “niche” audience. By the end of 1995, there were 139 cable programming services available nationwide, in addition to many regional programming networks. By the spring of 1998, the number of national cable video networks had grown to 171.

By that time, the average subscriber could choose from a wide selection of quality programming, with more than 57 percent of all subscribers receiving at least 54 channels, up from 47 in 1996. And at the end of the decade, approximately 7 in 10 television households, more than 65 million, had opted to subscribe to cable.

Also during the latter half of the decade, cable operating companies commenced a major upgrade of their distribution networks, investing $65 billion between 1996 and 2002 to build higher capacity hybrid networks of fiber optic and coaxial cable. These “broadband” networks

can provide multichannel video, two-way voice, high-speed Internet access, and high definition and advanced digital video services all on a single wire into the home.

The upgrade to broadband networks enabled cable companies to introduce high-speed Internet access to customers in the mid-90s, and competitive local telephone and digital cable services later in the decade.

Enactment of the Telecommunications Act of 1996 once again dramatically altered the regulatory and public policy landscape for telecommunications services, spurring new competition and greater choice for consumers. It also spurred major new investment, with America’s then-largest telecommunications colossus, AT&T, entering the business in 1998, though exiting four years later (see below). Almost simultaneously, Paul Allen, a founder of Microsoft, began acquiring his own stable of cable properties. And America On-Line moved on an historic merger with Time Warner and its cable properties, to form AOL Time Warner.

A generally deregulatory environment for cable operating and programming companies enabled the cable industry to accelerate deployment of broadband services, allowing consumers in urban, suburban, and rural areas to entertain more choices in information, communications, and entertainment services.

2000 and Beyond

Arrival of the new millennium brought with it hopes and plans for acceleration of advanced services over cable’s broadband networks.

As the new millennium got under way, cable companies began pilot testing video services that could change the way people watch television. Among these: video on demand, subscription video on demand, and interactive TV. The industry was proceeding cautiously in these arenas, because the cost of upgrading customer-premise equipment for compatibility with these services was substantial and required new business models that were both expansive and expensive.

In 2001, partly in response to those demands, AT&T agreed to fold its cable systems with those of Comcast Corp., creating the largest ever cable operator with more than 22 million customers.

Lower cost digital set-top boxes that started to become the norm in customer homes in the mid 1990s proved effective in accommodating the launch of many of the new video services. In general, however, more expensive technology would still be required for cable to begin delivery of advances such as high definition television services, being slowly introduced by off-air broadcast stations as well as by cable networks such as HBO, Showtime, Discovery, and ESPN.

By 2002, the cable landscape largely reflected the findings of a study sponsored by the Cable & Telecommunications Association for Marketing (CTAM). The study showed that roughly two of every three U.S. households had access to three cutting-edge communication tools: cable television, cellular phones and personal computers. Digital cable could be found in 18 percent of U.S. television homes, suggesting an overall digital cable penetration among cable customers in the range of 27 percent. As for data services, the research revealed that 20 percent of cable customers with PCs are using high-speed modems today.

Cable operators with upgraded two-way plant have been witnessing dramatic growth in “broadband” data. Cable has quickly become the technology of choice for such services, outpacing rival technologies, such as digital subscriber line (DSL) service, offered by phone companies, by a margin of 2 to 1. Subscribership to high-speed Internet access service via cable modems had grown to more than 10 million by the end of the third quarter of 2002.

As for telephone service using the cable conduit, growth was evident in all the limited market areas where such service was offered. More than 2 million customers were using cable for their phone connections by mid 2002.

To accommodate accelerating demand, cable programmers are rapidly expanding their menu of digital cable offerings. By 2002, about 280 nationally-delivered cable networks were available, with that number growing steadily.

At the end of 2002, the consumer electronics and cable industries reached a “plug-and-play” agreement that allowed “one-way” digital television sets to be connected directly to cable systems without the need for a set-top box. These new sets are marketed under the name Digital Cable Ready television sets (DCRs). A security device called a CableCARD is provided by cable operators to allow cable customers to view encrypted digital programming after it is authorized to do so by the cable operator. Talks to resolve issues related to “two-way” digital television sets began in 2003 and continue.

The digital TV transition leapt forward in 2003, as substantial gains were made in the deployment of High-Definition Television (HDTV), Video-on-Demand (VOD), digital cable, and other advanced services. Competitive digital phone service gained momentum as cable introduced Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone services. At the start of 2006, cable companies counted a total of about 5 million telephone customers, representing VoIP customers and customers for traditional circuit switched telephone service.

An NCTA survey of the top 10 MSOs showed that by September 1 of 2004, 700 CableCARDs were installed. By mid-November, that number had grown to over 5,000 CableCARDs. One year later, at the end of 2005, NCTA estimated that number had reached 100,000.

Results at the end of the Third Quarter of 2005 provide ample evidence of the growth potential of cable’s new position as a broadband provider. Cable’s capital expenditures reached $100 billion. Cable’s high-speed Internet service ended the quarter with 24.3 million subscribers, and the number of digital cable customers had grown to 27.6 million.

Credits :  www.calcable.org

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Analysis of UGC NET July 2016 PAPER II Questions 1 to 20 In Depth Analysis

UGC NET July 2016

PAPER II

1.     Embedded Journalism is considered as a type of_____

                    Right answer is military offensive      

                      Embedded journalism refers to news reporters being attached to military units involved in armed conflicts. While the term could be applied to many historical interactions between journalists and military personnel, it first came to be used in the media coverage of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The United States military responded to pressure from the country's news media who were disappointed by the level of access granted during the 1991 Gulf War and the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan.

        At the start of the war in March 2003, as many as 775 reporters and photographers were traveling as embedded journalists. These reporters signed contracts with the military promising not to report information that could compromise unit position, future missions, classified weapons, and information they might find. Joint training for war correspondents started in November 2002 in advance of start of the war. When asked why the military decided to embed journalists with the troops, Lt. Col. Rick Long of the U.S. Marine Corps replied, "Frankly, our job is to win the war. Part of that is information warfare. So we are going to attempt to dominate the information environment.

          An offensive is a military operation that seeks through aggressive projection of armed force to occupy territory, gain an objective or achieve some larger strategic, operational or tactical goal. Another term for an offensive often used by the media is 'invasion', or the more general 'attack'.

2.  Inner Margin of a book or document refers to ___________ 

The right answer is Gutter Margin. 

   Footnote is an additional piece of information printed at the bottom of a page.

In publishing, a colophon is a brief statement containing information about the publication of a book such as the place of publication, the publisher, and the date of publication. A colophon may also be emblematic or pictorial in nature. Colophons were formerly printed at the ends of books, but in modern works they are usually located at the verso of the title-leaf.

The gutter margin is a typographical term used to designate an additional margin added to a page layout to compensate for the part of the paper made unusable by the binding process. In a facing pages layout (Word refers to this type of layout as "mirror margins"), the gutter margin is on the very inside of both pages. So this is the Correct answer.

A swash is a typographical flourish, such as an exaggerated serif, terminal, tail, entry stroke, etc., on a glyph. The use of swash characters dates back to at least the 16th century, as they can be seen in Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi's La Operina, which is dated 1522. As with italic type in general, they were inspired by the conventions of period handwriting. Arrighini's designs influenced designers in Italy and particularly in France.

3.   Magazines have well-defined formats to reach out to _______

  The editor is committed to the magazine, to it reaching a 

readership, to its identity and survival. So the right

answer is select audiences.

4.     Factor of __Localisation__ has contributed for the emergence of a specialized media audience.

5.     In Semiotics, smoke is considered as________

The right answer is Indexical communication.

                  

Based on the ideas of Peirce, three modes of relationship between sign vehicles and their referents are commonly referred to.

• Symbolic: a sign which does not resemble the signified but which is 'arbitrary' or purely conventional (e.g. the word 'stop', a red traffic light, a national flag, a number);

• Iconic: a sign which resembles the signified (e.g. a portrait, a cinematic image, an x-ray, a diagram, a scale-model, onomatopoeia, 'realistic' sounds in music, sound effects in radio drama, a dubbed film soundtrack, imitative gestures);

• Indexical: a sign which is directly connected in some way (existentially or causally) to the signified (e.g. smoke, weathercock, thermometer, clock, spirit-level, footprint, fingerprint, knock on door, pulse rate, rashes, pain).

    

6.     In communication, pleasure results from a particular relationship between meanings and __Power.

This is taken from John Fiske’s book “Television Culture”. Below is a paragraph from his book.

Pleasure results from a particular relationship between meanings and power. Pleasure for the subordinate is produced by the assertion of one’s social identity in resistance to, in independence of, or in negotiation with, the structure of domination. There is no pleasure in being a “cultural dope”: there is, however, real pleasure to be found in, for example, soap operas that assert the legitimacy of feminine meanings and identities within and against patriarchy. 

7.     “ Another Communication is ____ receiver centric.

The Growth of a Deeper Understanding of the Nature of Communication Itself The perspective on communication has changed. As explained above, early models in the 50s and 60s saw the communication process simply as a message going from a sender to a receiver (that is, Laswell’s classic S-M-R model). The emphasis was mainly sender- and media-centric; the stress laid on the freedom of the press, the absence of censorship, and so on.

Since the 70s, however, communication has become more receiver- and message-centric. The emphasis now is more on the process of communication (that is, the exchange of meaning) and on the significance of this process (that is, the social relationships created by communication and the social institutions and context which result from such relationships).

‘Another’ communication “favours multiplicity, smallness of scale, locality, de-institutionalisation, interchange of sender-receiver roles (and) horizontality of communication links at all levels of society” (McQuail, 1983:97). As a result, the focus moves from a ‘communicator-‘ to a more ‘receiver-centric’ orientation, with the resultant emphasis on meaning sought and ascribed rather than information transmitted.

8.      The term ‘audiences’recognizes ___ The resistance__  of media consumers.

   

In my opinion resistance is the appropriate word. Some of the related lines below.

 Audience can be active (constantly filtering or resisting content) or passive (complying and vulnerable).

Audiencehood and consumerhood should be seen as process where the elements of both power and resistance work simultaneously.

9.     Louis Wirth and Talcott Parsons see mass communication as a tool of __________.

Theorists such as Louis Wirth and Talcott Parsons have emphasized the importance of mass media as instrument of social control (Right answer).

Louis Wirth studied in the United States and became a leading figure in Chicago School Sociology. His interests included city life, minority group behaviour and mass media and he is recognised as one of the leading urban sociologists. Wirth's major contribution to social theory of urban space was a classic essay Urbanism as a Way of Life, published in the American Journal of Sociology in 1938.

His research was mostly concerned with how Jewish immigrants adjusted to life in urban America, as well as the distinct social processes of city life. Wirth was a supporter of applied sociology, and believed in taking the knowledge offered by his discipline and using it to solve real social problems.

Talcott Parsons (December 13, 1902 – May 8, 1979) is an American sociologist of the classical tradition, best known for his social action theory and structural functionalism. Parsons is considered one of the most influential figures in the early development of American sociology. After earning a PhD in economics, he served on the faculty at Harvard University from 1927 to 1979, and in 1930, was among the first professors in its newly created sociology department.

Based on empirical data, Parsons' social action theory was the first broad, systematic, and generalizable theory of social systems developed in the United States. For this reason, his contemporaries viewed him as the founder of scientific sociology and Auguste Comte, the founder of the discipline, once called him, "the founder of the religion of humanity".

10.  When the consequences of exposure to a communicated message get delayed, it is known as _________________.

Sleeper Effect (Right Answer)

If you are interested in persuasion and understanding how a person's attitude might change over time, then you will want to know about the sleeper effect. A concept in psychology, it describes the way a message, when paired with some sort of discounting cue, has a delayed impact on the recipient.

A useful, concrete example is advertising. Have you ever seen a TV ad that plays again and again? Maybe it was an ad for a breakfast cereal or a car that appealed to you. However, as you saw the same ad the next day, and then again the day after that, it might have started to lose some of its excitement and appeal. In fact, you probably started to get tired of that cereal brand or car even before you tried it for yourself. This is normal; research shows that exposure to the same message multiple times leads to a decrease in the message's efficacy. Most viewers gradually return to their original attitude about the subject of the persuasion, in this case the commercials' products.

On the other hand, maybe you have seen an ad accompanied by a disclaimer. In psychology, we call this sort of disclaimer a discounting cue. The cue could be a warning about the side effects of a preservative in the cereal or a defect in the car's air bag. Yet another example would be a message at the end of a political ad showing that the opposing candidate funded the ad. Any disclaimer or reason leading you to doubt the credibility of the message's source is a discounting cue. These cues make you skeptical about the ad's message, and you consequently won't allow it to seriously persuade you. However, even with the presence of a discounting cue, over time you and most other viewers will be affected by the ad and come to accept its message. This delayed persuasion is the sleeper effect. A good way to remember it is to think of the ad's message as sleeping inside of you while the disclaimer is awake; little by little, the ad's underlying message wakes up and wins you over when the discounting cue falls to sleep!

How It Works

We are not completely sure how the sleeper effect works, but some psychologists have hypothesized that it has to do with forgetting. According to this hypothesis, with repeated exposure to the same message, we simply forget about the discounting cue over time, even while we remember the underlying message! Another, related hypothesis has to do with dissociation. Here, researchers believe that rather than forgetting the discounting cue altogether, we disconnect ourselves from it and prioritize the initial message, taking its meaning more seriously once it isn't readily associated with the discounting cue.

While recent research on these theories seems to support the hypotheses to some extent, the terms are too absolute in nature. Most viewers or listeners are unlikely to forget or dissociate from the discounting cue entirely, and certainly not quickly. Instead, we tend to do so gradually over time. There is a slow process going on in our brains as one message fades in strength while another grows in importance.

11.  Who is the author of “ Saving the Media” ?

12.  John Fiske considers speech as a ______________

John Fiske’s Codes of Television

An event to be televised is already encoded by social codes (Right Answer) such as those of:

Level one: "REALITY"

appearance, dress, make-up, environment, behavior, speech, gesture, expression, sound, etc. these are encoded electronically by technical codes such as those of:

Level two: REPRESENTATION

camera, lighting, editing, music, sound which transmit the conventional representational codes, which shape the representations of, for example: narrative, conflict, character, action, dialogue, setting, casting, etc.

Level three: IDEOLOGY

which are organized into coherence and social acceptability by the ideological codes, such as those of: individualism, patriarchy, race, class, materialism, capitalism, etc.

Fiske have put speech as a social code, and dialogue (i.e. scripted speech) as a technical one, but in practice the two are almost indistinguishable: social psychologists such as Berne (1964) have shown us how dialogue in "real life" is frequently scripted for us by the interactional conventions of our culture.

13.  Truth of the statement is not a defence against ___Defamation____.

Defenses to Libel and Slander

Truth:   

                In many legal systems, adverse public statements about legal citizens presented as fact must be proven false to be defamatory or slanderous/libellous. Proving adverse public character statements to be true is often the best defense against a prosecution for libel or defamation. Statements of opinion that cannot be proven true or false will likely need to apply some other kind of defense. The use of the defense of justification has dangers, however; if the defendant libels the plaintiff and then runs the defense of truth and fails, he may be said to have aggravated the harm.

14. Examination of professionalism is derived from the public’s right to ________.

I didn’t find its answer anywhere and according to me its answer is Education (Right Answer).

15.  The technique of propaganda is used in international communication to manipulate ___Cognitions____.

A working definition of propaganda which focuses on the communication process is as follows: “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” ( Jowett & O'Donnell 2006 ). 

16.  The protagonist of culture imperialism theory was ___________.

Out of the four options only William Hachten (Right Answer)is related to Culture imperialism theory.

17.  Name the influential scholar who applied liberation theology to education and communication in development context.

The right answer is Paolo Friere (Right Answer). This question is directly lifted from book Communication for Development in the Third World : Theory and Practice for Empowerment written by Srinivas Melkote and H. Leslie Steeves.

In chapter 8, Communication and Spirtiality in development, “ Probably the most influential scholar to apply liberation theology specifically to education and communication practice in development contexts is Paolo Friere (1970,1973).

18. The notion of multiplicity of paradigm is elaborated by __Jan Servaes___

In the book “New Frontiers in International Communication Theory” written by Mehdi Semati on 59^th page it is clearly written “ The new paradigm, which can be broadly described as multiplicity in one world, is gradually emerging but still in the process of formation ( Jan Servaes 1991, 52). This statement from Servaes, an advocate of the multiplicity paradigm, summarizes the circumstances surrounding the emergence of the paradigm”.

19.  The dependency theory has identified obstacles to development as _______

The right answer is External.  In the book Appalachia’s path to dependency written by Paul Salstrom it is clearly written, “ The insight behind dependency theory is that economic development can be hampered not only by local obstacles but also by obstacles that are external to a region or country. In these regions Dependency theory can aid understanding better than can modernisation theory”.

What is Dependency Theory?

Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system".

The theory arose as a reaction to modernization theory, an earlier theory of development which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy.

20.  A systematically – qualitative data set is amenable to ______ analysis

I could not find the exact answer but I think the answer is Grounded Theory.

Grounded theory is a general research method (and thus is not owned by any one school or discipline); which guides you on matters of data collection and details rigorous procedures for data analysis. You can use quantitative data; or qualitative data of any type e.g. video, images, text, observations, spoken word etc.

Grounded theory is a research tool which enables you to seek out and conceptualise the latent social patterns and structures of your area of interest through the process of constant comparison. Initially you will use an inductive approach to generate substantive codes from your data, later your developing theory will suggest to you where to go next to collect data and which, more-focussed, questions to ask. This is the deductive phase of the grounded theory process.

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