The Evolution of Mass Communication ( Short notes) Part I

These small notes just for revision and helpful before UGC NET paper but for proper understanding you should read them in detail.

George Guess/Sequoyah

· Father, white/mother, Cherokee; handicapped, never learned to read or write English; Cherokee felt they were meant to hunt, not read

· Devised a system of 86 characters, each representing a sound in the Cherokee language; Guess taught his daughter to read; system adopted by the Cherokee nation in 1825; nation awarded Guess a silver medal for his contributions

· Only single person in history to create/perfect a system for reading & writing a language; English botanist named giant California tree Sequoyah, Guess’s Cherokee name, for his giant contributions

Storytelling

· National Storytelling Association defines storytelling as: “the art of using language, vocalization and gesture to reveal the elements and images of a story to an audience”

· Story defined as “narrative account of real or imagined events”; stories pass on wisdom, beliefs, values; explain who/what we are; explain how things are, why; the building blocks of knowledge; the foundation of memory, learning; connect, link us to the past, present & future

· Telling defined as “live, person to person, oral/physical presentation of a story to an audience”; involves direct contact between teller/listener; teller must use vivid language to bring the story to life, listener must bring experiences to help bring to life.

· Storytelling Elements: interactive, co-creative, personal, interpretive, human; a process/medium for sharing & interpreting meaning to an audience

Culture

· Culture defined as “the behaviors/beliefs characteristic of a particular social, ethnic or age group”; the learned behaviors of whatever group to which you belong

· Another definition of culture: “the sum total of ways of living built up by a group over a period of time and passed on from one generation to another”

Media & Storytelling, Culture

· Mass media have become our culture’s storytellers; whether it is advertising, television, newspapers, whatever media, they all tell stories that we like; those who can tell stories well will be sought

· Media stories: some positive, some negative; stereotypes build over time (many based on truthful info for some, extended to all of a given culture); once again, some stereotypical images dominate

Early Cultures & Storytelling

· Oral cultures: passed on info from one generation to the next without benefit of writing

· Cultures extremely close, elders considered most wise

· 1st important communicators

· Myth & history intertwined

Early Writing Cultures

· Sumerians: cuneiform, a picture language using a stylus tool

· Egyptians: created hieroglyphs w/2000 symbols; used papyrus (writing surface derived from plants along the Nile) and parchment (writing surface from the skins of goat & sheep); Rosetta Stone helped decipher hieroglyphs

· Phoenicians: developed 1st syllable alphabet

· Greeks: credited with perfecting the alphabet

Printing Press

· Before the press, took 5 years for monks to hand write a Bible

· Other presses for art & wine existed; Gutenberg gave 1st printing press w/interchangeable letters

· Five years after the printing press, 12 million books published in Europe

Communication Defined

Process in which we assign/convey meaning in an attempt to create shared understanding; requires interpersonal & intrapersonal skills such as processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing & evaluating.

Different Communication Types

· Intrapersonal—communication one has with oneself; can be speaking aloud, eye contact, winking, daydreaming; referred to as “silent language”

· Interpersonal—includes all aspects of personal interaction or contact, usually with 2 people, but can be others (not a large group); interacting with another, exchanging info & views; a thoughtful exchange, debate

· Mass Communication—when messages are sent through technology, thereby making it possible for large numbers to access the message; principles of this type the same as others, but this one much more difficult than the other types because of the large numbers in the audience

Problems with Communication

· A message can challenge a person’s experiences; may cause rejection, distortion or misinterpretation

· Noise: anything that interferes with the transmission of a message may occur (smudged print, reception problems, lawn mowers)

· Feedback: crucial because message may be misinterpreted, unclear, delayed, etc. Information Revolutions’ Background

· Writing brought an end to the importance of oral storytelling

· Author Irving Fang suggests there are 6 info revolutions; in each of the 6, storytelling changed drastically

First Revolution: Writing Revolution

· Began primarily in Greece, around 8th century B.C.

· Began w/convergence of the Phoenician alphabet to the East, the Egyptian papyrus to the South

Ramifications of 1st Revolution

· Memory no longer crucial

· Knowledge now boundless

· Elders no longer revered

· Cultures divided

Second Revolution: Printing Revolution

· Began in Europe, second half of the 15th century when paper (originally from China) and a printing system established by Gutenberg

· Marked the beginning of the modern world

Ramifications of 2nd Revolution

· Info spread through many layers of society; royalty/church no longer all powerful

· Printing lends itself to massive political, religious, economic, educational & personal changes (Martin Luther)

· Period called the “Reformation” or “Renaissance”

· Marked the end of feudalism

Third Revolution: Mass Media Revolution

· Began in Western & Eastern United States during the middle of the 19th century

· Began w/the convergence of advances in paper production & printing press methods & the invention of the telegraph

· Changed the way info was conveyed

Ramifications of 3rd Revolution

· For the 1st time, newspapers & magazines reached out to the common man with news, events near & far & packaged goods for sale

· Photography became popular

· Public schools & libraries began to spread

· Literacy possible for the masses.

Fourth Revolution: Entertainment Revolution

· Began in Europe and America toward the end of the 19th century

· Stories printed, sold cheaply, just like cars on an assembly line; entertainment can now be infinitely duplicated/canned

Ramifications of 4th Revolution

· Entertainment will change American audiences forever

· Eventually, audiences will spend more time being entertained than many spend working

Fifth Revolution: Communication Toolshed Revolution

· Evolved during the middle of the 20th century, transforming the home into the central location for receiving info & entertainment

· Includes telephone, broadcasting, recording, improvement in print technologies, cheap universal mail services

Ramifications of 5th Revolution

· Radio keeps families entertained (foreshadows fascination w/television)

· Birth of TV changes all other media; radio loses programs & becomes a jukebox; general magazines lose prominence

· Home entertaining will never be the same

Sixth Revolution: Information Highway Revolution

· Began with the Internet explosion in the 1990s

· Describes today’s convergence of electronic technologies

Ramifications of 6th Revolution

· Has created an uncertain situation for future of all media

· New media now extremely popular; young people spend the most time utilizing new

media

Overview of Media Changes

· 4000 B.C.E.: Written language began

· 1455: Gutenberg’s Bible is published

· 1960: U.S. transitions to information society

· 1975: 1st personal computer introduced; SATCOM 1 was 1st satellite approved; it is

sustained about 22,300 miles above the Equator.

· 1982: CD, 1st digital music recording medium, introduced

· 1991: World Wide Web begins

· 1995: First digital hit movie (Toy Story)

· 1996: Telecommunications Act of 1996 changes U.S. media policy (particularly ownership)

· 1998: First U.S. HDTV broadcasts; new Copyright Act

· 2007: Internet reaches 75% of American homes

· 2009: U.S. transition to digital television

Broadcast Media in 5th/6th Centuries

· Radio dominated until 1948; audiences abandoned TV in early 1950s

· In the 1950s, more TVs sold than children born (in spite of the “Baby Boom Generation”: 1946-1964)

· In 1963, TV becomes the preferred medium for Americans to get their news

· For years, network TV dominated; news figured dominated, trusted as credible

· Mass efficiency; could reach 97% audience w/3 ads in primetime; ads were succinct, not tailored to niche audiences, but large sections of the population

Pivotal Moments in Television

· 1963: TV reaches maturity

· 1975: HBO goes on satellite

· 1976: 1st basic cable service & WTBS debut

· 1987: Fox TV network debut

· 1996: Telecommunication Act triggers mergers

· 1998: Broadcast news loses dominance

Media Problems/Issues at Hand

· Audience fragmentation (now really difficult to reach)

· Convergence (erosion of traditional distinctions among media; content now available everywhere)

· Conglomeration prevalent (media bought by non-media companies)

· New media, convergence, media ownership all impactful, all hitting at the same time

Technological Innovations

· Digital communication helped in the development of the 1st computers in the 1940s (can duplicate, store & play back complicated media content).

· Microprocessors, miniature circuits, led to the first personal computers: smaller, cheaper, and increasingly more powerful (computer chip power doubles about every 18 months)

· Fiber optic cable appeared in the mid-1980s, featuring thin bundles of fiber, incorporating glass & pulse of light that can be transported through lasers and can carry broadcast channels, telephone signals, & all sorts of digital codes.

· Various innovations from 1969 to the 1990s led to the Internet & the WWW.

Aftermath of Media Changes

· Democratization of media; because audiences are everywhere, reach is now diminished

· Other new problems: “newstainment,” credibility questioned, reality programming, product placement & beyond

· No boundaries, no news cycles

· Content delivery now proliferated

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Advertising Theories and Models

AIDA 

AIDA was created by Strong in 1925 and Elma Lewis in 1900 and it is a behavioural model that has as purpose to make sure that an advertisement raise awareness, stimulate interest, and leads the customer to desire and eventually action (Hackley, 2005). 

The model is seen as a highly persuasive and is said to often unconsciously affect our thinking (Butterfield, 1997). 

With the AIDA model Strong suggests that for an advertisement to be effective it has to be one that: 

1. Commands Attention

 2. Leads to Interest in the product 

3. And thence to Desire to own or use the product 

4. and then finally leads to Action (Mackay, 2005) 

For the advertisement to contribute to success it has to be designed so that the customer passes through all these four phases, with all being equally important. The model implies that advertising should inject memorable and believable messages that will make costumers triggered to act in a certain way (Brierley, 2002).

 The model may be seen by many as the strongest advertising theory, but has along with the others been criticised by different sections of the advertising community. They claim that there is no evidence that customers behave in this rational, linear way. They mean that mass media advertising in general fail to stimulate desire or action. The model ignores the role of context, environment and mediation in influencing the effectiveness of the advertisement. The advertising world has because of this lately turned into focus more on the two main behavioural responses: awareness and interest. They mean that all four phases are not equally important and to be successful the advertiser has to look further into the behavioural phases (Brierley, 2002).

 Another criticism that the model has met is that it represents only high-involvement purchases. According to AIDA customers always goes through this rational process when buying products, but many says that purchases more often are spontaneous (Hackley, 2005).

 In 1961 there were two new models published, the DAGMAR theory (Belch & Belch, 1995) and Lavidge and Steinerís hierarchy of effects model (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961). 

DAGMAR 

Russell Colley created DAGMAR when he prepared a report for the Association of National Advertisers. This report was entitled Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising Results, shortened down to DAGMAR, and thereof the name, (Belch & Belch, 1995) and was later in 1969 published as a book with the same title (Mackay, 2005).

 DAGMAR was created to encourage measurable objectives for each stage of the communication (Smith & Taylor, 2002) and does not deal purely with the message (Mackay 2005). DAGMAR focuses on the levels of understanding that a customer must have for the organisation and on how to measure the results of an advertising campaign (Belch & Belch, 1995). 

The main conclusions on the DAGMAR theory were expressed in the following quotation: ìAll commercial communications that weigh on the ultimate objective of a sale must carry a prospect through four levels of understanding.

1. The prospect must first be aware of the existence of a brand or organisation 

2. He must have a comprehension of what the product is and what it will do for him 

3. He must arrive at a mental suspicion or conviction to buy the product 

4. Finally he must stir himself to action.î (Mackay, 2005, p.25-26) (See Figure 6)

The communication has to be specific and measurable, and is therefore based on a hierarchical model containing the four stages set out above in the quotation (Mackay, 2005).

 The DAGMAR approach has had a huge influence on the how to set objectives in the advertising planning process and many planners use this model as their base. However, just as the other approaches within advertising, DAGMAR has been met with critique. One of the major criticisms towards DAGMAR is on its reliance on the ëhierarchy-of-effects theoryí, just as with AIDA. Customers do not always pass through the stages in a linear way. Another criticism made towards the DAGMAR approach is that it focuses too much on strategies. Many creative people within advertising are looking for the great unique idea that can result in a successful campaign and feels that the DAGMAR approach is too concerned with quantitative measurements on the campaign (Belch & Belch, 1995). 

Lavidge & Steiners Hierarchy-of-effects model

This model was published during the same period as DAGMAR. The model was named the hierarchy-of-effects model which is the same name as some authors used on the foundation theory,and will therefore go under the name, Lavidge & Steiners Hierarchy-of-effects model in this study. 

According to this model customers do not switch from being completely uninterested to become convinced to buy the product in one step. Lavidge and Steiners Hierarchy-of-effects model is created to show the process, or steps, that an advertiser assumes that customers pass through in the actual purchase process (Barry & Howard, 1990). The model is based on seven steps, which as with the other models must be completed in a linear way.

The big difference between this model and the others is not only the steps, but also the view on how to pass them. Lavidge and Steiner (1961) write that the steps has to be completed in a linear way, but ìa potential purchaser sometimes may move up several steps simultaneously (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961, p. 60) which is supported by Munoz (2002) who writes that normally ultimate customers do not switch directly from being interested to become convinced buyers.  

Lavidge and Steiner identify the seven steps in the following order: 

1. Close to purchasing, but still a long way from the cash register, are those who are merely aware of its existence.

2. Up a step are prospects who know what the product has to offer. 

3. Still closer to purchasing are those who have favourable attitudes toward the product ñ those who like the product. 

4. Those whose favourable attitudes have developed to the point of preference over all other possibilities are up still another step. 

5. Even closer to purchasing are customers who couple preference with a desire to buy and the conviction that the purchase would be wise. 

6. Finally, of course, is the step which translates this attitude into actual purchase. (Lavidge & Steiner , 1961, p. 59)

Lavidge and Steiner (1961) also wrote, in their article, that they are fully aware of the impulsive purchases that customers can make, but they mean that for higher economical goods these steps are essential for the advertiser to include. 

This model also has as a premise that advertising occurs over a period of time, and may not lead to immediate response and purchase. It is rather a series of effects that has to occur, with each step fulfilled on the way towards the next stage (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961) 

Behind this model is according to Belch & Belch (1998) the premises that ìadvertising effects occur over time and advertising communication may not lead to immediate behavioural response or purchase, but rather, consumers must fulfil each step before (s)he can move to the next stage in the hierarchyî (Belch and Belch 1998, p. 146). 

As with the former models discussed, this model has also been criticised. The criticism on Lavidge & Steiners model is very similar to the one made on DAGMAR and AIDA. There is still no evidence on the fact that awareness of a products leads to purchase, and the steps are still unclear.

 Criticism has also been made on each individual step in the model. Critics do not think that the model explains how the customers will go from one step to another and to point out the steps without explaining them further is not seen as enough (Palda, 1966). 

Other Models

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Theories of Communication Final part II

With this theories part is completed.

6) USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

This theory propounded by Katz in 1970, is concerned with how people use media for gratification of their needs. An outcome of Abraham Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs, it propounds the fact that people choose what they want to see or read and the different media compete to satisfy each individual"s needs.

In the hierarchy of needs, there are five levels in the form of a pyramid with the basic needs such as food and clothing at the base and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid. The fulfillment of each lower level need leads to the individual looking to satisfy the next level of need and so on till he reaches the superior-most need of self-actualization.

Figure 2.2

The Uses and Gratifications approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes. As media users become increasingly confronted with choices, this approach should direct our attention to the audience. Lull's television research found that families used television for communication facilitation, relationship building, intimacy, and for structuring the day. In general researchers have found four kinds of gratifications:

1. Information - we want to find out about society and the world- we want to satisfy our curiosity. This would fit the news and documentaries which both give us a sense that we are learning about the world.

2. Personal Identity - we may watch the television in order to look for models for our behaviour. So, for example, we may identify with characters that we see in a soap. The characters help us to decide what feel about ourselves and if we agree with their actions and they succeed we feel better about ourselves. 

3. Integration and Social Interaction - we use the media in order to find out more about the circumstances of other people. Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with the lives of others so that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as friends. 

4. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time.

Riley and Riley (1951) found that children in peer groups used adventure stories from the media for group games while individual children used media stories for fantasizing and daydreaming. The study thus found that different people use the same messages from the media for different purposes.

Katz replaced the question "what do media do to people?" with the question "what do people do with the media?" Katz, Gurevitch & Hass found that the media are used by
individuals to meet the following specific needs :

Cognitive needs (acquiring information, knowledge and understanding); 

Affective needs (emotional, pleasurable experience);

Personal integrative needs (strengthening self image);

Social integrative needs (strengthening self image);

Tension release needs (escape and diversion)

McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the following individual needs categories:

1) Diversion (emotional release)
2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for companionship).
3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding.)
4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks.)

B. Rubin and Bantz (1989) studied the uses and gratifications of "new technology" by examining VCR use. They found the following motives for VCR use: 

1) library storage of movies and shows
2) watching music videos
3) Using exercise tapes
4) renting movies
5) letting children view
6) time-shifting
7) Socializing by viewing with others
8) Critical viewing including TV watching and studying tapes

7) SPIRAL OF SILENCE THEORY

Propounded by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, this theory states that the media publicizes opinions that are mainstream and people adjust their opinions according to their perceptions to avoid being isolated. Individuals who perceive their own opinion as being accepted will express it, whilst those who think themselves as being a minority, suppress their views. Innovators and change agents are unafraid to voice different opinions, as they do not fear isolation.

Figure 2.3

8) CONSISTENCY THEORIES (1950s)

Festinger formulated the consistency theories that talked about people"s need for consistency in their beliefs and judgements. In order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief, judgments and action people expose themselves to information that is consistent with their ideas and actions, and they shut out other communications.

9) McCOMBS AND SHAW"S AGENDA SETTING THEORY

This theory puts forth the ability of the media to influence the significance of events in the public's mind. The media set the agenda for the audience's discussion and mentally order and organize their world. The theory is consistent with a "use and gratification" approach. 

McCombs and Shaw assert that the agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities. The people most affected by the media agenda are those who have a high need for orientation

10) Media Dependency Theory

Developed by Ball-Rokeach and DeFluer, the key idea behind this theory is that audiences depend on media information to meet needs and reach goals, and social institutions and media systems interact with audiences to create needs, interests, and motives in the person. The degree of dependence is influenced by the number and centrality of information functions and social stability. 

Some questions that this theory raised were :
Do media create needs?
Do people turn to media to achieve gratification and satisfy needs?
Are media needs personal, social, cultural, political, or all of these?
"The media are our friends"??

11) STEPHENSON"S PLAY THEORY

Play is an activity pursued for pleasure. The daily withdrawal of people into the mass media in their after hours is a matter of subjectivity. The effect of mass communication is not escapism nor seducing the masses. Rather it is seen as anti-anxiety producing, and are regarded as communication-pleasure.

12) MODELING BEHAVIOUR THEORY

Behaviors which are modeled from media experiences can become habitual if found useful and/or if they are reinforced in the environment. This is not about violent or criminal behavior.

13) STALAGMITE THEORIES

These theories suggest that mediated experiences induce long term effects that are very difficult to measure. The effects are like stalagmite drippings building up over time. Meaning Theory and the Cultivation Theory are two of the most significant Stalagmite theories.

MEANING THEORY

Media experiences mould meanings by putting things in a particular framework. Does "NYPD Blue" depict the real world of New York City police detectives? Questions like this are coming from a Meaning Theory focus on media.

CULTIVATION THEORY

George Gerbner tried to determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of the environment they lived in. He found that dominance of TV created a common view of the world and that it homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a bad place to live in leading to people becoming distrustful of the world. Over time, particular symbols, images, messages, meanings become dominant and are absorbed as the truth. Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are established.

Figure 2.4

14) Diffusion of innovations theory

Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State University this theory traces the process by which a new idea or practice is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. The model describes the factors that influence people's thoughts and actions and the process of adopting a new technology or idea.

15) Social learning theory

Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this specifies that mass-media messages give audience members an opportunity to identify with attractive characters that demonstrate behavior, engage emotions, and allow mental rehearsal and modeling of new behavior. The behavior of models in the mass media also offers vicarious reinforcement to motivate audience members' adoption of the behavior.

Baran and Davis (2000) classify mass communication theories into three broad categories: 

1. microscopic theories that focus on the everyday life of people who process information - for example, uses and gratifications, active audience theory, and reception studies; 

2. middle range theories that support the limited effects perspective of the media - for example, information flow theory, diffusion theory, and

3. macroscopic theories that are concerned with media's impact on culture and society - for example, cultural studies theory.

Theories of mass communication have always focused on the "cause and effects" notion, i.e. the effects of the media and the process leading to those effects, on the audience's mind. 

Harold Lasswell and Berelson have succinctly expressed this idea. Lasswell's essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what in what channel to whom with what effects?" Berelson said: "Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues, brought to the attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of conditions, have some kinds of effects." (1949).

Figure 2.5

Wilbur Schramm stated: "In fact, it is misleading to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really endless. We are little switchboard centers handling and rerouting the great endless current of information.... " (Schramm W.1954) quoted in McQuail & Windahl (1981)

16) The Osgood and Schramm circular model emphasizes the circular nature of communication.

The participants swap between the roles of source/encoder and receiver/decoder.

Figure 2.6

17) Gerbner's General Model

Gerbner's General Model also emphasizes the dynamic nature of human communication.

Figure 2.7

18) The Shannon-Weaver Model.

Shannon and Weaver produced a general model of communication known after them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into sub-systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels and codes. They propose that all communication must include six elements:

Source
Encoder
Channel
Message
Decoder
Receiver

This model is often referred to as an " information model" of communication. A drawback is that the model looks at communication as a one-way process. That is remedied by the addition of the feedback loop. Noise indicates those factors that disturb or otherwise influence messages as they are being transmitted

19) Berlo's S-M-C-R Model

Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE, CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model focuses on the individual characteristics of communication and stresses the role of the relationship between the source and the receiver as an important variable in the communication process. The more highly developed the communication skills of the source and the receiver, the more effectively the message will be encoded and decoded.

Berlo's model represents a communication process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts messages based on one's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along CHANNELS, which can include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER interprets messages based on the individual's communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural system. The limitations of the model are its lack of feedback

Terms used in the chapter:

Mass-media:

It is a collective phrase that represents not only the press, cinema, radio, television and internet, but also to some extent, books magazines, pamphlets , direct mail literature, posters, folk media, and natural communication methods such as rumours, education and preaching. It is so termed because its reach extends to vast heterogeneous populations. Generally the mass media employ technological means to communicate to the masses. They are founded on the idea of mass production and distribution. Wiebe defined mass media as those readily available to the general public.

Selective attention:

The media are full of competing messages. The process of screening vast amount of information in which one has no interest through mental filters is called selective attention, for example, an adult will be more tuned to listening to the news while a child would rather watch a cartoon show.

Selective perception:

This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in terms of one"s existing attitudes. People of distinct psychological character same media content in different ways. This depends on factors such as age, values, family, opinions etc. Selective perception is influenced by social relationships.

Selective retention:

The ability of an individual to retain certain messages in his mind while ignoring others is called selective retention. This is influenced by various psychological and physiological factors such as choice, values, culture, emotions etc.

Selective exposure:

Some individuals are exposed to certain media effects/messages while some are not. This screening aspect depends on many factors such as reach of media, accessibility, age, cultural acceptability, taboos, etc.

Opinion leaders/change agents:

The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they hear from "opinion leaders". An individual who is a member of a group manifests certain characteristics in his thinking and behaviour that contribute to the formation of "public opinion". The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the information they receive and then give their judgement on it.

Encoder:

In the process of communication, the sender or source of the message is referred to as the encoder.

Decoder:

The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as the decoder.

Feedback:

Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It refers to an inquiry, response or experiment. Feedback can be positive (when the required result is achieved) or negative; instantaneous(when the response is immediate) or delayed. Feedback is used to gauge the effectiveness of a particular message put forth or situation that has taken place.

Noise:

In all communication, there is a sender, a message/communication and a receiver. The meaning of a message is greatly dependent on the culture in which it is transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the receiver decodes it. Between the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the way and complicates the process. A noiseless communication does not exist. There always is some kind of noise entering the communication. 

Noise can be physical noise for example static or psychological i.e. when culture, taboos or values come into play to disrupt the normal transmission process of communication. Misunderstanding of a particular message i.e. distortion of meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of Chinese Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the original message may be distorted by the time it comes to the final player.

@ Vishiwjeet Singh

Under Creative Commons License

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